History of the Pharmacy Profession in India with a Focus on Pharmacy Education

 Ancient Roots 1. Ayurveda and Traditional Medicine: The roots of pharmacy in India trace back to ancient times with the practice of Ayurveda, where the knowledge of medicinal plants and formulations was passed down through generations. 2. Charaka Samhita: The Charaka Samhita, an ancient Ayurvedic text, contains detailed information on the preparation of medicines, emphasizing … Read more

Reactions of cyclopropane and Cyclobutane

The reactions of cyclopropane and Cyclobutane are influenced by their high ring strain, leading to distinctive reactivity. Some of the notable reactions include: (1) Addition of Cl2 & Br2: Cyclopropane reacts with Cl2 and Br2 in the dark to form additional products, using CCl4 as a solvent. The reaction does not occur with cyclobutene and … Read more

Physical properties of cycloalkanes

The physical properties of cycloalkanes are as follows: 1. State: Cycloalkanes are typically colorless liquids or solids at room temperature, with higher members existing as waxy or even solids. 2. Odor: They generally have a faint, hydrocarbon-like odor. 3. Solubility: Cycloalkanes are nonpolar molecules and are relatively insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents … Read more

What is axial and equatorial hydrogen?

In cyclohexane, a common cyclic hydrocarbon, two types of hydrogens are present due to the chair conformation of the molecule: axial hydrogens and equatorial hydrogens. 1. Axial Hydrogens: Axial hydrogens are those oriented vertically concerning the plane of the cyclohexane ring. They project either upwards or downwards from the carbon atoms of the ring. These … Read more

Coulson and Moffitt’s Modification

Coulson and Moffitt’s modification, also known as the bent bond or banana bond model, is a theoretical concept proposed in organic chemistry to explain the stability of certain strained molecules, particularly cycloalkanes. This model builds upon the traditional understanding of bond angles and hybridization to more accurately describe the bonding in cyclic compounds. In the … Read more

Sachse Mohr’s theory (Theory of strainless rings)

Introduction: Sachse and Mohr (1918) argued that cycloalkanes beyond cyclopentane could be stable if all the ring carbons were not constrained to lie in a single plane, as previously believed by Baeyer. This would result in a ring structure that is free of strain and, thus, more stable. Sachse-Mohr’s “Strainless Rings” concept is a theoretical … Read more

Baeyer Strain Theory

Adolf von Baeyer, a German chemist and a Nobel prize winner from the University of Munich, Germany, in 1885, proposed a theory to explain the relative stability of the first few cycloalkanes. According to this theory, the strain energy in a cycloalkane is directly related to the angle strain and torsional strain present in the … Read more

Stability of Cyclo-Alkanes

A stable organic compound means it is much less reactive. By the term stability, we get an idea about the chemical reactivity of a compound. Cycloalkanes are cyclic hydrocarbons where the carbon atoms form a closed ring structure. The stability of cycloalkanes is primarily determined by the amount of strain present in the ring. Three … Read more

Chemical properties of cycloalkane

Cycloalkanes are a class of hydrocarbons with a circular arrangement of carbon atoms. Due to the cyclic structure, these compounds possess a certain degree of strain, which affects their chemical properties. While cycloalkanes display lower reactivity than their open-chain counterparts, they can still partake in various chemical reactions. 1. Halogenation in the presence of UV … Read more

Method of preparation of cycloalkanes

Several methods for preparing cycloalkanes are tailored to the specific starting materials and desired products. Here are some common methods: 1. From Di-halogen Compounds: Suitable 1,3 or 1,4 di-halogen alkanes react with sodium or zinc to form cycloalkanes. 2. From Aromatic Compounds: Benzene can be converted into cyclohexane through catalytic hydrogenation at high temperature and … Read more

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